The subject provinces of the Mexica empire were governed through a system of indirect rule that allowed local rulers to retain considerable autonomy in exchange for regular tribute payments and political loyalty. The Mexica divided their empire into thirty-eight provinces, called provincias, each of which was assigned a tribute quota. The provinces were governed by local rulers, who were often the same rulers who had governed the territory before Mexica conquest. The Mexica replaced the rulers of those provinces that resisted conquest or that rebelled after conquest, but they generally left the local political structure intact. The system was remarkably durable, and it allowed the Mexica to control a vast and culturally diverse empire with a relatively small administrative apparatus.
The Division of the Empire
The Mexica empire, at its height under the reign of Ahuitzotl, extended over much of central Mexico, from the Pacific coast to the Gulf of Mexico, and from the Huastec region in the north to the Pacific coast of modern Guatemala. The empire was divided into thirty-eight provinces, each of which was assigned a tribute quota and each of which was governed by a local ruler. The provinces varied greatly in size, in population, and in the wealth of the tribute they were required to pay.
The Mexica divided the provinces into two broad categories. The first category consisted of the recently conquered provinces, which were subject to direct military occupation and which were required to pay a heavy tribute. The second category consisted of the older provinces, which had been incorporated into the empire for a longer time and which were governed more loosely. The transition from the first category to the second typically took several generations, and the local rulers were gradually given more autonomy as they proved their loyalty.
The Calpixqui, the Tribute Collectors
The Mexica supervised the provinces through a network of officials, the most important of which were the calpixqui, the tribute collectors. The calpixqui were usually Mexica nobles who were stationed in the subject provinces for periods of several years, and they reported directly to the central government. They were responsible for the collection and transport of the tribute, for the supervision of the local rulers, and for the maintenance of order in the province.
The calpixqui were assisted by a staff of assistants, including scribes, accountants, and military officers. The scribes were responsible for the recording of the tribute in the codices, the accountants were responsible for the calculation of the amounts owed, and the military officers were responsible for the protection of the calpixqui and the enforcement of their authority. The calpixqui had considerable power in the province, and they were often resented by the local population, who saw them as agents of foreign oppression.
The calpixqui were drawn from the Mexica nobility, and the position was a stepping stone in the careers of the Mexica officials. The calpixqui were required to be honest and diligent in the collection of the tribute, and they were subject to severe penalties if they were found to be corrupt. The Mexica had a sophisticated system of accounting, and the tribute records, preserved in the Codex Mendoza and other sources, are some of the most important documents of Mexica civilization.
The Local Rulers
The Mexica generally allowed the local rulers of the subject provinces to retain their thrones, provided that they paid the tribute and remained loyal to the Mexica state. The local rulers were usually the same rulers who had governed the territory before the Mexica conquest, and they were often the descendants of long lines of local rulers. The Mexica required the local rulers to come to Tenochtitlan on a regular basis to renew their oath of loyalty, and they were required to send their sons to Tenochtitlan to be educated in the calmecac.
The local rulers had considerable autonomy in the internal government of their provinces. They continued to collect taxes from their own subjects, to maintain their own courts, and to perform their own religious rituals. The Mexica did not interfere in the internal affairs of the subject provinces, provided that the local rulers paid the tribute and remained loyal. The local rulers were also responsible for the maintenance of order in their provinces, and they were required to suppress any revolts or acts of defiance.
The system of indirect rule had several advantages. It allowed the Mexica to control a vast empire with a relatively small administrative apparatus, and it allowed the local rulers to retain their legitimacy in the eyes of their subjects. Yet the system also had disadvantages. The local rulers were often unreliable, and there were numerous revolts and acts of defiance. The Mexica dealt with these revolts by a combination of military force, diplomatic negotiation, and the redistribution of tribute.
The Tribute System
The tribute system was the backbone of the Mexica state, and it was the principal mechanism by which the wealth of the subject provinces was transferred to the imperial center. The tribute lists, recorded in the Codex Mendoza and other sources, show the wide range of goods that the subject provinces were required to deliver. These included food, cloth, featherwork, cacao, cotton, turquoise, jaguar skins, eagle skins.
The amount of tribute varied from province to province, and it was adjusted over time to reflect the political and economic situation. The richest provinces, such as the Gulf Coast provinces, paid a heavy tribute in cacao, cotton, and other tropical products. The poorer provinces, such as the highland provinces, paid a lighter tribute in food and other local products. The tribute was collected on a regular basis, typically twice or four times a year, and it was transported to Tenochtitlan by the calpixqui and their assistants.
The tribute was used to support the imperial court, the priesthood, the military, and the bureaucracy. The imperial court consumed a large share of the tribute, including food, clothing, and luxury items. The priesthood received a share for the maintenance of the temples and the performance of the rituals. The military received a share for the support of the soldiers and the conduct of the wars. The bureaucracy received a share for the payment of the officials and the maintenance of the state.
Revolts and Resistance
The system of indirect rule was not always successful, and there were numerous revolts and acts of defiance by the subject provinces. The most common causes of revolt were the burden of the tribute, the arrogance of the calpixqui, and the religious obligations imposed by the Mexica. The subject peoples were required to honor the Mexica gods, and they were sometimes required to provide victims for sacrifice, and these obligations were deeply resented.
The Mexica dealt with the revolts by a combination of military force, diplomatic negotiation, and the redistribution of tribute. The most serious revolts were suppressed by military force, and the leaders of the revolts were executed or sacrificed. The lesser revolts were often settled by negotiation, and the tribute was sometimes reduced to appease the rebellious population. The Mexica also used the device of replacing the local rulers, and they often installed new rulers who were more amenable to Mexica authority.
The system of indirect rule was remarkably durable, and it survived the Spanish conquest in modified form. The Spanish used the existing Mexica institutions, including the calpixqui system, to govern the indigenous population, and the indigenous ruling families were often allowed to retain their privileges. Yet the system was gradually dismantled over the course of the colonial period, and the indigenous population was reduced to a subordinate position in the Spanish colonial system.
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See also:
- How were tribute payments organized in the Aztec Empire? — the tribute system
- What were the calpixqui, the tribute collectors? — the provincial officials
- How did conquered peoples keep their own rulers? — the system of indirect rule
- The Tribute System and Imperial Wealth — the economic basis
- The Tlatoani and the Imperial Office — the supreme ruler
- Aztec Empire and Political Structure — the broader context